A grammar for reading and writing

( ........................ ) , appear anywhere within a sentence, ( .................................) 
[A careful reader will quickly realize that when inserts appear at the front or end of a sentence, they can be confused with sentence modifiers, a point we will get to in a moment. Hint: remember the test for sentence modifiers.) 
The Grammatical Constructions within Inserts 
Inserts can take various forms, but are usually short phrases or clauses. 
The Meaning of Inserts 
Inserts contain material that is not essential for the meaning of the sentence as a whole. Inserts generally 
provide additional information 
offer clarifying remarks 
hedge or qualify 
contain editorial comments 
Inserts can range from relatively important concerns to frivolous remarks. 
Inserts often indicate a contrasting element, especially at the end of a sentence 
He was merely ignorant, not stupid . 
The chimpanzee seemed reflective, almost human . 
The speaker seemed innocent, even gullible . 
Some say the world will end in ice, not fire . 
The puppies were cute, but incredibly messy . 
A basic test of inserts is that they can be removed with essentially no loss of meaning. 
Punctuation of Inserts 
In keeping with the notion of being inserted material—both in terms of their insertion into the sentence and in terms of their containing additional material inserted into the discussion—inserts are usually bracketed off from the remainder of the sentence by commas or other punctuation. 
If commas are present in a sentence and they do not 
indicate a sequence of items (as in bottles , boxes , and cans) , or 
separate a front sentence modifier from the rest of the sentence (Yesterday , I slept.), or 
reflect special usage, as with dates (April 6 , 1987) or locations (Austin , Texas) 
they probably bracket an insert. (Note that the initial capital letter or final punctuation of a sentence can form one of the brackets of an insert.) 
The Use Of Inserts 
Inserts provides a simple way of distinguishing between what traditional grammar otherwise refers to as dependent and independent clauses. Consider the two sentences below: 
	My brother, who is in the first grade, had a headache. 
	My brother who is in the first grade had a headache. 
In the first, we assume the existence of one brother, who happens to attend the first grade. In the second, we assume the existence of more than one brother, and find a reference to the one who attends first grade. 
The first sentence contains an insert, as indicated by the punctuation. 
	My brother , ( who is in the first grade ) , had a headache. 
The second contains an expanded noun phrase for the subject. 
	My brother who is in the first grade 	 had a headache. 
 đ * ơ —————— 
This final sentence contains no insert; all of the information is essential for an understanding, and hence is part of the simple sentence. 
State identifications and titles function much like inserts, with a comma before and after. 
	Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , is a neat town. 
	Jim Jones , Professor of English , entered. 
Similarly, commas are used to insert the name of a speaker within a quote, a special form of insert. 
	"The book , " he said , "is interesting." 
Inserts also offer a way to stress elements within a sentence. One way speakers emphasize a word (and hence an idea) is by raising the volume of their voice. Writers do not really have this option, other than maybe by CAPITALIZING and punctuation! Speakers can also introduce a “pregnant pause” that draws attention to last word uttered and introduces anticipation of the next idea. Writers can achieve somewhat the same effect by introducing inserts. 
	My brother is a chemist. 
	My brother, you recall, is a chemist. 
The comma before an insert introduces a visual pause that stresses the preceding word. Even a “blank” insert would introduce the same effect. 
	My brother, 	 , is a chemist. 
Punctuation and Levels of Insertion 
Various forms of punctuation (the comma, dash, parentheses, and bracket) indicate progressively lower levels of insertion, that is progressively less important information or comments. An additional form of insertion, when we feel we have to insert something but do not want to break the flow at all, is the footnote. 
Simple sentence : 
	The Constitution gives the Congress power to declare war. 
Commas : 
	The Constitution , our basic law, gives the Congress power to declare war. 
Dashes : 
	The Constitution —in Article 1— gives the Congress power to declare war. 
Parentheses : 
	The Constitution (or so I believe) gives the Congress power to declare war. 
Footnote : 
	The Constitution (1) gives the Congress power to declare war. 
Finally, square brackets are used to indicate an insertion of material into a quotation by someone other than the original author. 	 
Square Brackets : 
"The Constitution [of the United States] gives the Congress power to declare war." 
The choice of punctuation is determined by the writer's view on the importance of the insertion, and hence the degree to which it is emphasized or de-emphasized. In different contexts, the same insertion could take on more or less importance. 
Implications For Reading 
Readers use the knowledge of insert slots in their analysis of complex sentences. By recognizing inserts, they uncover the simple sentences underlying otherwise complex sentences. 
The role of punctuation as a tool in sentence analysis can be seen in the following passage, the opening to a book review of a psychoanalytic reinterpretation of two novels: 
One of the reasons that so many people have lost interest in psychoanalysis—as a convincing and useful story about the kind of people we are—is that it has made so many spurious claims for itself. As a science, as an efficient cure for misery, as a secular religion, as a supreme explanation of virtually everything, it is wholly implausible. As one good story—among many others—about what we are and who we want to be, though, it can be remarkably illuminating. There is no cure for being alive, but useful and interesting descriptions of our predicament can make a difference. [2] 
Notice the opening sentence 
One of the reasons that so many people have lost interest in psychoanalysis —as a convincing and useful story about the kind of people we are— is that it has made so many spurious claims for itself. 
A definition of psychoanalysis ( as a convincing and useful story about the kind of people we are ) is inserted within the initial observation. The sentence makes complete sense without that insertion, but the insertion is useful for understanding. 
As the next sentence starts ( As a science,. ), we expect a sentence modifier limiting the focus of the discussion, but instead we find reference to a series of possible viewpoints: 
As a science, 
as an efficient cure for misery, 
as a secular religion, 
as a supreme explanation of virtually everything, 
	 it [psychoanalysis] is wholly implausible. 
The commas here do not mark off inserts but items in a series. 
The following sentence contains two insertions bracketed off by dashes and then commas: As one good story 
	 —among many others— 
about what we are and who we want to be 
, though, 
it can be remarkably illuminating. 
the first insert (— among many others —) emphasizes the notion that there are other options to psychoanalysis as a "good story." The second assertion (, though ,) emphasizes the contrast with the earlier observation on the value of psychoanalysis: no longer "wholly implausible", now "remarkably illuminating." Note that dashes are used to bracket somewhat of an aside, added for emphasis, while the commas bracket an insertion that is more critical to assuring the proper understanding. 
As always with inserts, we can read straight through without the inserts. 
As one good story 
	 ...................................... 
about what we are and who we want to be , 
 ........................, 
it can be remarkably illuminating. 
or 
As one good story about what we are and who we want to be , 
it can be remarkably illuminating. 
This leaves us with a complex sentence containing a chunk in front and a base sentence: it can be remarkably illuminating. 
How should we understand the structure now? The chunk in front 
As one good story about what we are and who we want to be , 
it can be remarkably illuminating. 
might seem to be a front sentence modifier, but it will not pass the test: it won't shift to the end. 
* It can be remarkably illuminating, as one good story about what we are and who we want to be , 
Whether we place this chunk ( As one good story about what we are and who we want to be) at the beginning or end of the sentence, it is another insert, inserted to define what is meant by "it." 
In the final sentence of the paragraph, we can bracket off the end of the sentence: 
There is no cure for being alive , but useful and interesting descriptions of our predicament can make a difference. 
We have a series of two simple sentences joined by "but" and divided by a comma. Both elements seem crucial to the meaning. 
How we analyze a sentence controls how we understand that sentence. When the sentence analysis is spelled out like this, reading seems decidedly difficult and time consuming. In practice, the analysis suggested here is accomplished in split seconds, and usually instinctively. The only reason for spelling it out, as it were, is so that you can apply the technique consciously, slowly, and carefully when needed. 
The paragraph is repeated below with inserts marked in orange. 
One of the reasons that so many people have lost interest in psychoanalysis—as a convincing and useful story about the kind of people we are—is that it has made so many spurious claims for itself. As a science, as an efficient cure for misery, as a secular religion, as a supreme explanation of virtually everything, it is wholly implausible. As one good story—among many others—about what we are and who we want to be, though, it can be remarkably illuminating. There is no cure for being alive, but useful and interesting descriptions of our predicament can make a difference. 
Another Example 
The following is the opening of a book review of, among other books, David Halberstam's The Children, a history of the early days of the civil right movement. 
It was lucky for David Halberstam, for the civil rights movement, and for all of us that Halberstam became a reporter for the Nashville Tennessean in 1956. Just a year out of Harvard, he was given a front-row seat for one of the most significant of the early struggles against America's apartheid. The Nashville sit-ins of 1960 were not the first ones ( the honor for that goes to four college students in Greensboro, North Carolina ) but they were the most thoroughly prepared and skillfully conducted. Those who defied the local power structure knew very well what they were risking. For a year they had undergone spiritual exercises under the guidance of a thirty-one-year-old Gandhian, James Lawson, who had served prison time as a conscientious objector during the Korean War and studied nonviolence for three years in India. (3) 
Note how to make sense of the passage you instinctively separate our chunks 
It was lucky for David Halberstam, 
 for the civil rights movement, and 
 for all of us 
 that Halberstam became a reporter for the Nashville Tennessean in 1956. 
Just a year out of Harvard, ] 
he was given a front-row seat for one of the most significant of the early struggles against America's apartheid. 
 The Nashville sit-ins of 1960 were not the first ones 
( the honor for that goes to 	 four college students in Greensboro, North Carolina) 
but they were the most thoroughly prepared and skillfully conducted. 
Those who defied the local power structure knew very well what they were risking. For a year ] 
they had undergone spiritual exercises under the guidance of a thirty-one-year-old Gandhian 	 
( , James Lawson, ) 
( who had served prison time as a conscientious objector during the Korean War and studied nonviolence for three years in India ) . 
The paragraph is repeated below with the inserts in orange and sentence modifiers in blue. 
It was lucky for David Halberstam, for the civil rights movement, and for all of us that Halberstam became a reporter for the Nashville Tennessean in 1956. Just a year out of Harvard, he was given a front-row seat for one of the most significant of the early struggles against America's apartheid. The Nashville sit-ins of 1960 were not the first ones ( the honor for that goes to four college students in Greensboro, North Carolina ) but they were the most thoroughly prepared and skillfully conducted. Those who defied the local power structure knew very well what they were risking. For a year they had undergone spiritual exercises under the guidance of a thirty-one-year-old Gandhian, James Lawson, who had served prison time as a conscientious objector during the Korean War and studied nonviolence for three years in India. 
Examples of inserts throughout a text are offered in an annotated versiopn of the Text for Discussion: Annotation - Needle Exchange Programs and the Law - Time for a Change. 
Implications For Writing 
Using our earlier model, you can think of inserts as slots within a sentence that may or may not be filled as needed. Consider the following sentence: 
On Wednesday, the board of governors voted to discontinue the employee health plan. 
Simple and to the point. Now consider the same sentence, taking advantage of opportunities to provide additional information and to expand on the ideas: 
As I recall, on Wednesday, June 11th, the board of governors, the source of power in the company, voted (6 to 1) to discontinue the employee health plan, a plan heavily favored by the employees. 
The sentence conveys a much richer, detailed statement 
Inserts are an important device for qualifying ideas, adding additional explanatory information, or offering editorial comments that might influence the reader's understanding and acceptance of remarks. Inserts represent potential slots authors can use to expand on, comment on, and/or clarify their remarks. 
And they use their knowledge of the punctuation requirements of inserts to edit their use of punctuation in their own writing—both to make sure that all inserts are bracketed from the remainder of the sentence, and to avoid introducing unnecessary punctuation. 
(1) A footnote such as this might indicate additional historical or legal information about the constitution. 
(2) Adam Phillips, "Paging Dr. Freud," a review of The King and the Adulteress: A Psychoanalytic and Literary Reinterpretation of "Madame Boivary" and "King Lear" ;, The New York Times Book Review , June 7, 1998, p. 24. 
(3) Garry Wills, "Those Were the Days," The New York Review , June 25, 1998, p. 27. 
The Comma: A Review
Commas are used for a number of specialized purposes: 
	 date / year	 April 9,2001
	 numbers	 123,456
Other than these, commas are used under four circumstances: 
to separate elements that are compounded or in a longer series 
to bracket off introductory sentence modifiers 
to bracket off inserts 
to avoid ambiguity
Let's review each more closely. 
To Separate Elements In A Series (Compounding)
Noun Phrasestalks about compound noun phrases 
The boy,his sister,and his dog went swimming.
verbs
	They run,swam,and laughed.
full predicates
	I moved here,found a job,and sent my kids to school.
and even when joining sentences when using a connecting word 
This is where I call home,sothis is where I'll die.	 
Finally, we can use commas to separate a series of noun phrase premodifiers
	 The big,bad,boisterous baboon......
In all of the cases above, the comma serves asand.A comma occurs after all but the next to last item in the series.
Commas are thus used to separate elements that are compounded or in a longer series
To Bracket Off Introductory Sentence Modifiers
The section onsentence structurediscusses the use a comma to separate off an initial sentence modifier, as with 
Because he loved her,he did not marry her.
To Bracket Off Inserts
The section oninsertsshows how to bracket inserts within commas. Remember that inserts can occur anywhere, including at the very beginning or end of a sentence. The determination that an insert is present is based in part on the nature of the content--whether it is truly parenthetical or essential to the overall meaning. 
To Avoid Ambiguity
The final use commas is to avoid a potential misunderstanding, such as when a sentence modifier at the end of a sentence may be mistaken for part of an earlier chunk, as with our sentence
He did not marry her, because he loved her..
And that's it. Any other commas (such as between subject and predicate), does not belong.
Try this experiment: Give your instructor five dollars for each comma you use in an essay. Your instructor will return five dollars for each comma used correctly. You should come out even. This technique for cutting down on unwanted commas has been heartily endorsed by every English instructor who has tried it.
Rules for Comma Usage, 
Resolving Ambiguity
The relationship of structure and meaning is clearest in the case of ambiguity. Equally legitimate analyses yield equally legitimate (however unintended) meanings. Recall that sentence modifiers and inserts can both appear at the beginning or end of a sentence. This produces a situation with significant possibilities for ambiguity. How then are we to decide if an element at the beginning or end of a sentence is 
a sentence modifier 
an insert 
or even part of the simple sentence itself,
and with that which meaning of the sentence to accept?
We make such judgments on the basis of the nature of the content and the earlier tests.
ã        if the element helps shape the overall meaning and can shift from front to back and vice versa, it's probably a sentence modifier.
ã        if removing the element produces an incomplete or meaningless sentence, the
construction is part of the simple sentence.
ã        if removing the element results in the loss of additional information or an editorial comment, but does not change the basic sense of the sentence, the construction was probably an insert.
Life gets interesting when two or more of these situations exist at the same time.
We read with attention to both the content and the structure of the sentences, to both the thought expressed and the grammatical structure. Each informs the other. 
Unlike the New Zealand Expeditionary forces, which gave condoms to their soldiers, the United States decided to give American soldiers after-the-fact, and largely ineffective, chemical prophylaxis.
To make sense of this sentence, we must recognize three basic elements. There is the core sentence:
Unlike the New Zealand Expeditionary forces,
 which gave condoms to their soldiers,
the United States decided to give American soldiers after-the-fact,
and largely ineffective,
chemical prophylaxis. 
There is the sentence premodifier indicating that the action was different than that taken by the New Zealand Expeditionary forces.
Unlike the New Zealand Expeditionary forces,
 which gave condoms to their soldiers,
the United States decided to give American soldiers after-the-fact,
and largely ineffective,
chemical prophylaxis. 
And there are two inserts that supply the information that the New Zealand Expeditionary forces gave their troops condoms and that the after-the-fact American efforts were largely ineffective:
Unlike the New Zealand Expeditionary forces,
 which gave condoms to their soldiers,
the United States decided to give American soldiers after-the-fact,
and largely ineffective,
chemical prophylaxis. 
One way or another, we have to find structure in the sentence to make sense of it.